CONQUEST, COLONIZATION, AND CONVERSION

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Discuss the significance of al-Andalus as a cultural and intellectual center, including the coexistence of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian communities and the transmission of knowledge from the East to Europe. 2. Assess the impact of the Crusades on Europe and the Islamic world, including their role in reviving trade, expanding European military and economic ambitions, and shaping justifications for conquest. 3. Analyze how the concepts of limpieza de sangre (purity of blood) and genealogical accounting contributed to the development of racial hierarchies and the casta system in the Spanish colonial world. Oxford History Timelines: Spain | Portugal

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Historians generally agree that Spain’s medieval experience of frontier warfare through the Reconquísta, the conquest of Muslim territories in Spain, profoundly influenced colonial institutions in Mexico. Rather than creating entirely new systems, Spanish conquerors and administrators adapted medieval Iberian models to American contexts. It transferred late medieval Iberian frontier institutions across the Atlantic, adapting them to colonial circumstances and Indigenous societies.

Medieval Spain	Manifestation in Colonial Mexico
Reconquest ideology framed warfare as a holy struggle to reclaim Christian land from Muslims.	The ideological fusion of warfare and evangelization from medieval Iberia shaped how Spaniards justified conquest in Mexico.
Military rewards were granted in the form of land grants, rights to collect tribute and control over labor	Military service rewarded with control over subject populations mirrored medieval Iberian patterns through encomienda grants.
Religious coexistence (Christians, Muslims, Jews) gradually gave way to forced conversion and expulsion.	The drive for religious homogeneity developed in late medieval Spain shaped colonial evangelization policies.
Newly conquered towns received fueros (charters). and town councils (cabildos) governed frontier municipalities.	Urban political organization in New Spain directly reproduced Castilian frontier town structures.
“Purity of blood” statutes distinguished Old Christians from converts (conversos and moriscos) and social hierarchy based partly on ancestry and religious background.	Development of the casta system where social status was tied to ancestry and legal and social privileges varied by racial classification.
Large estates (señoríos) controlled land and dependent labor.	Growth of haciendas, large landed estates on which Indigenous and mixed populations worked under hierarchical arrangements.
Muslim communities (Mudejars) retained local autonomy under Christian rule with separate legal courts and communal structures.	Indigenous communities organized into repúblicas de indios which maintained local leaders (caciques) and had separate courts and tribute obligations.

THE FALL OF ROME, THE RISE OF THE VISIGOTHS AND THE ARRIVAL OF ISLAM

From the third century B.C.E. to 476 C.E., the Mediterranean world was centralized under the Roman Empire. Plagued by overextension, economic decay, political chaos, and Germanic invasions, the western part of the Roman Empire finally collapsed in 476 C.E. With the Western Roman Empire being a thing of past, feudalism eventually took hold of Europe.

Under feudalism, Europe became politically decentralized, distant trade networks collapsed, and knowledge was lost or retreated to monasteries as the Roman education system disintegrated. What emerged in the place of a centralized Rome was a series of kingdoms that fused Roman culture, Germanic culture, and Christianity.

In Iberia, the Visigoths had established one such kingdom. King Leovigild (568-586 C.E.) made Toledo the center of Visigoth power and sought to bring unification to Iberia. By 672, the Visigoth kingdom had reached its apex. Early details about the Visigoths come from sources such as Isidore of Seville’s (early 7th century C.E.) History of the Kings of the Goths and John Biclaro’s (late 6th century C.E.) Chronicle.

The year 711 was a pivotal point in Iberian history as it marked the ascendancy of Islam and the collapse of Visigoth dominion in Spain.

The region of Iberia that came under Muslim control was referred to as al-Andalus and became a cultural and intellectual center as it ushered in a period historians refer to as convivencia, or coexistence, among Muslim, Jewish, and Christian cultures.

In fact, many historians stress that the Jewish communities residing in Spain since Roman times, welcomed the arrival of the Muslim’s as liberators from anti-Jewish legislation initiated by the Visigoths. These laws originated in Visigoth Spain after king Reccared I (r. 586-601) converted from Arian Christianity to Catholicism in 589. His successors, now also Catholic, enacted legislation that was aimed at isolating and suppressing the Jewish community in Spain. For example, Canon III of the Sixth Council of Toledo convened in 638, recorded that King Khintila (r. 636-40) “inflamed by the ardor of the Faith and in union with the bishops of his kingdom, has chosen to obliterate the very foundations of the superstitious prevarication [of the Jews], and does not permit anyone who is not Catholic to reside in his kingdom.” Article X of Book XII in the Lex Visigothorum (653) legislated that “Jews, whether baptized or not baptized, are forbidden to give testimony in court.”

The intellectual importance of al-Andalus was measured by accessibility to knowledge, and in many cases, knowledge that was new or lost to Europe. For example, the city of Córdoba alone housed over 400,000 books in its libraries, a figure that was unheard of throughout the rest of medieval Europe. Many of the books included Greek and Arab works on natural philosophy (science).

Area	Islamic Focus	Intellectual Bridge
Preservation and Transmission of Classical Knowledge	Muslim scholars in al-Andalus preserved and expanded upon Greek works (Aristotle, Galen, Ptolemy) that had largely disappeared from Western Europe.	Sparked Scholasticism and influenced thinkers like Thomas Aquinas.
Philosophy	Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and his commentaries on Aristotle and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and his focus on metaphysics and epistemology.	Stimulated debates on faith and reason and helped shape university curricula in Paris, Bologna, and Oxford.
Science and Mathematics	Transmission of Arabic numerals and algebra (from al-Khwarizmi). Also Astronomical tables (Toledan Tables) and improved instruments (astrolabe refinement).	Laid foundations for the Scientific Revolution and navigation during the Age of Exploration.
Medicine	Al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) and surgical techniques and instruments and Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) on clinical medicine.	Medical texts became standard in European universities for centuries.
Agriculture and Technology	Advanced irrigation systems (qanats, waterwheels) along with new crops: citrus fruits, rice, sugarcane, cotton, spinach.	Transformed Mediterranean agriculture and diet.
Architecture and urbanism	Great Mosque of Córdoba and Alhambra of Granada.	Influenced Romanesque and Gothic developments.

By the year 1200, an entire corpus of Greek and Arabic works on natural philosophy and philosophy had been made available to Europe. Many of these works would influence the medieval worldview such as Aristotle’s writings which dominated Western thought until the advent of the Scientific Revolution.

In the case of Spain, Aristotelian philosophy would dominate its intellectual world even into the 16th century.

During the centuries of Muslim rule in al-Andalus, thousands of Arabic words entered medieval Castilian. Below are few examples of how the Spanish language has been influenced by Arabic terms. Once Castilian is adopted in Mexico Nahuatl words would also enter this language.

Government and Administration alcalde (from al-qāḍī) – judge, later mayor alguacil (from al-wazīr) – official, constable alférez (from al-fāris) – cavalry officer alcázar (from al-qaṣr) – fortress, palace aduana (from dīwān) – customs office Science, Learning and Commerce álgebra (from al-jabr) – algebra cifra (from ṣifr) – zero, numeral almacén (from al-makhzan) – warehouse tarifa (from ta‘rīfa) – tariff, rate arsenal (from dār aṣ-ṣinā‘a) – arsenal

Agriculture and Irrigation alberca (from al-birka) – reservoir aceituna (from az-zaytūna) – olive azúcar (from as-sukkar) – sugar arroz (from ar-ruzz) – rice algodón (from al-quṭn) – cotton Daily Life and Objects jarra (from jarra) – jug taza (from ṭās) – cup almohada (from al-mukhadda) – pillow ajedrez (from ash-shaṭranj) – chess ojalá (from in shā’ Allāh) – hopefully (“God willing”)

THE PAPACY TAKES THE LEAD

Throughout the early Middle Ages, the Papacy (Christian spiritual authority) and secular rulers struggled over who should lead Europe. In particular, it was the Papacy and Holy Roman Emperors who clashed over the leadership of this region of the world. This struggle was in part resolved by the Investiture Controversy, a battle that pitted Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073-85) against Henry IV (r. 1056-1106), the Holy Roman Emperor.

What was at stake? First, who had the right to appoint and invest bishops (Investiture Controversy), an important and powerful member of the Church’s hierarchy. Investment itself was a ceremony in which the bishop was given a staff and ring. The staff symbolized he was the shepherd of the flock and the ring that he was married to the church. Second, who was the rightful leader of Christendom (Christian Europe). Henry IV’s struggle with Gregory VII resulted in his ex-communication forcing the king to ask for Gregory VII’s forgiveness at Canossa in 1077. For now, the Papacy was on top. In response to his success, Gregory VII issued the Dictatus Papae (1085), a Papal Bull that outlined the authority of the church over all matters. The Papacy’s new position of power was further demonstrated in 1095 when it directed Europe’s foreign policy through the Crusades. This would impact al-Andalus and would be one of the main factors that set the tone for the conquest of America with its fusion of militarism and Christianity.

In 1095, Pope Urban II (r. 1088-1099) called for a crusade against the Seljuk Turks (Islam) at the Council of Clermont (France). In response to his call, Christian forces left Europe and conquered parts of the “Holy Land” (Levant). What caused the call for this crusade? What is it the fear of Islam making its way to Europe? Was it Europe wanting to access the trade routes originating in the Asia and ending in Muslim held territory?

The bottom line is that the early military success of the crusades re-introduced Europe to “exotic” goods and international trade routes originating in the East. What type of goods were making their way from the east? An answer to this question can be found in a document describing the Christian capture of a trade caravan below.

The capture of a caravan by King Richard from Geoffrey de Vinsauf’s Itinerary of King Richard I and Others to the Holy Land (13th century) By this defeat the pride of the Turks was entirely cast down, and their boldness effectually repressed; whilst the caravan, with all its riches, became the spoil of the victors. Its guards surrendered to our soldiers themselves, their beasts of burden, and sumpter horses; and stretching forth their hands in supplication, they implored for mercy, on condition only that their lives should be spared. They led the yoked horses and camels by the halter, and offered them to our men, and they brought mules loaded with spices of different kinds, and of great value; gold and silver; cloaks of silk; purple and scarlet robes, and variously-ornamented apparel, besides arms and weapons of divers forms; coats of mail, commonly called gasiganz; costly cushions, pavilions, tents, biscuit, bread. barley, grain, meal, and a large quantity of conserves and medicines; basins, bladders, chess-boards; silver dishes and candlesticks; pepper, cinnamon, sugar, and wax; and other valuables of choice and various kinds; an immense sum of money, and an incalculable quantity of goods, such as had never before (as we have said) been taken at one and the same time, in any former battle.

The Crusades served as a catalyst for Europe’s desire for eastern goods and the expansion of trade. An effort to eventually tap into eastern resources stimulated the quest for ways to circumnavigate the Islamic world and find new ways to reach Asia. Two waves would be initiated, one attempted to go circumnavigate Africa and the other sought to reach Asia by heading in a westerly direction.

The crusades also successfully fused Christianity and militarism thus laying the foundations for the concept of just war. For example, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux’s (1090-1153) In Praise of the New Knighthood argued that the, “. . . the knights of Christ may safely fight the battles of their Lord, fearing neither sin if they smite the enemy, nor danger at their own death; since to inflict death or to die for Christ is no sin, but rather, an abundant claim to glory.” This notion that war could be justified even made its way into Iberian medieval law.

This crusading spirit was not just limited to fighting Islam in the East. It also found its way to Spain where a Muslim presence had existed since 711. With the arrival of Islam to this part of the world, the Visigoths were forced into northern Spain. From the Visigoth remnants in northern Spain evolved a series of Christian kingdoms that eventually would lead the Reconquísta of Iberia. Two of the most important Christian efforts reclaiming territory were led the Kingdom of Castile and the Crown of Aragón. The last campaign against Islam in Spain ended with the fall of Granada in 1492.

The crusading spirit that reached Spain put an end to co-existence between the Muslim, Christian, and Jewish communities as Iberia’s Christian rulers began to conquer and colonize Muslim territories. Certain institutions and the ideology of expansion used in the conquest, colonization, and conversion of the Americas had their origin in Iberia during the Reconquista as Christian kingdoms dealt with Muslim and Jewish populations. One could argue, again, that Iberia’s medieval experience in waging war against Islam prepared it for the conquest of the Americas. The frontier would no longer be with Islamic Spain but instead would shift to the Americas and the indigenous world. In essence Iberia’s medieval experience made it a society prepared for conquest, colonization, and conversion.

GENOLOGICAL ACCOUNTING AND THE CASTA SYSTEM

The process of the Reconquísta was a gradual one that formally came to an end in 1492 with the surrender of Muhammad XII (Boabdil) and the fall of the Kingdom of Granada. Papal encouragement, through religious-political backing and from subsidies, did much to help ensure Christian success in waging war against the Muslims in Spain. When the Reconquista was nearing its end, Spanish monarchs, Isabel of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, moved to create a unified state in Spain, and in the process, also channeled their energies into developing a national identity. In order to distance themselves from Jewish and Muslim communities, Christians in Spain invoked a series of rituals of separation that included genealogical accounting. Through these rituals of separation, it was possible for Christians to distinguish themselves from recent converts to Christianity, or from families who had Converso (Jewish community member converted to Christianity) or Morisco (Muslim converted to Christianity) heritage.

Genealogical accounting thus became an important part of the Spanish world after 1492 as it mirrored the proliferation of statutes of purity-of-blood as a measure for justifying exclusion and defining social boundaries. More extreme measures of separation adopted in Spain came in the form of expulsion. For Spain’s Jewish community, this form of separation was invoked in 1492 when Isabel of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragón issued a charter commanding, “the said Jew and Jewesses of our kingdom to depart and never to return or come back to them or to any of them.” Over one hundred years later, in 1609, Philip III followed the precedent set by Isabel and Ferdinand by issuing a decree declaring, “I have resolved that all of the Moriscos of that kingdom [Valencia] be expelled and sent to the land of the Berbers.”

The emphasis placed on blood as a measure of exclusion was not just limited to distinguishing old Christians from new Christians in the Spanish world, or those who had pure blood as opposed to those whose blood was tainted. This emphasis on blood also played an important part in defining hidalguía itself, the basis of all nobility in Spain. Early codification of this concept can be found in the Siete Partidas which records that “hidalguia is nobility that comes to men through lineage.” This emphasis placed on lineage as a means of identifying hidalguía is also found in works such as a sixteenth century manuscript on nobility, which like the Siete Partidas, declared that hidalguía “comes from lineage.” In a society where so much stress was placed on hidalgía de sangre and limpieza de sangre as measures of exclusion, these values would make their way to the Americas and evolve into the casta system, a “racialized” system where privilege, power, and status was defined by your heritage.

In addition to this social criterion, medieval institutions would also make their way to colonial Latin America and shape the relationship between Spanish and indigenous cultures. For example, encomiendas (grants) which frequently included a unit of territory which supplied its incumbent with rents paid by the inhabitants of a designated region in exchange for the services of providing “a militia and exercising arms against” against Islam. These grants would appear in colonial Latin America with a different focus. What was granted to the encomandero (grant’s holder) was not land but indigenous labor in exchange for indoctrination to Spanish ways. Encomienda became a labor exploitation system used throughout Spanish America. These two examples and others will be further explored in a later presentation.

THE SPIRITUAL CONQUEST AND THE MENDICANT ORDERS

One of the most important developments in the history of Western Christianity was monasticism. Benedict of Nursia (480-543 C.E.), born in Monte Cassino, established a monastic order with a rule to bring men back to a religious life and to have them withdraw from the sins and distraction of the material world. Called the Benedictines, this monastic order served as a model for future orders in the West.

By the 13th century, a new form of monastic order came into being that sought not a cloistered life, but one that can be described as living in the imitation of Christ. Called mendicant orders, the Franciscans would be the first to come into being followed by the Dominicans, Augustinians, and the Jesuits. It was the Franciscans, in particular, that would first lead the spiritual conquest of the Americas, then followed by the Dominicans, Augustinians, and the Jesuits. These mendicant orders became the primary agents of the spiritual conquest because the Spanish monarchy felt they were better prepared for the evangelization of indigenous culture than the secular clergy. They had a tradition of being mission-driven and spiritually discipline as they followed a regula (link example of Franciscan Regula), or rule.

The spiritual conquest of the Americas refers to the Spanish effort, beginning in the early 16th century, to convert Indigenous peoples to Christianity following military conquest. The spiritual conquest worked alongside political and economic domination and was the religious dimension of Spanish colonization in the Americas.

IN CLOSING

By the 13th century, Europe had experienced an economic revival that would eventually facilitate its expansion into the Atlantic world. In part, this could be attributed to the Crusades. The revival of commerce and industry in Europe facilitated the monarchical assertion of authority through the power of taxation. Politically, this meant that feudal states were now slowly evolving into sovereign centralized states that would even challenge the authority of the Papacy. In England, new monarchy came with the ascension of the Tudor Dynasty (1485-1603). France, the Valois Dynasty (1328-1589) further solidified its monarchical authority. In Spain, the Trastamara Dynasty (1369-1516) would give way to the Habsburg Dynasty (1516-1700). In Portugal, the Avis Dynasty (1385-1578) provided stability. Theoretical claims to power by monarchs now became a reality with taxation since it provided the revenue necessary to organize an army and create a bureaucracy. These very same rulers became very interested in facilitating exploration and the quest for resources as a means of fueling their states. Thus begins the age of European expansion into the Atlantic which would culminate with the creation of maritime empires with colonies in the Americas.

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