World History Portal

Hammurabi (r. 1795–1750 BCE) was a ruler of Babylon’s Amorite Dynasty, renowned for creating a comprehensive law code that remains one of the most significant legal documents of the ancient world. This code, now housed at the Louvre Museum in France, provides historians with invaluable insights into the social attitudes, legal principles, and daily lives of ancient Babylonians.

As you read the selections below, consider the following questions:

• What insights can the Law Code of Hammurabi give historians about Babylon’s social, economic, and political characteristics?
• What can we learn from these laws about social distinctions and the role of men and women in Babylonian society?
• What can we learn about Hammurabi and Babylonian kingship from the prologue and epilogue of the code?
• Does the Law Code of Hammurabi provide evidence that an urban revolution did in fact take place in Mesopotamia?

Complete the Primary Source Analysis Form when finished.

Source: This text is part of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy-permitted texts related to medieval and Byzantine history.

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Law Code of Hammurabi – Selections

When Anu the Sublime, King of the Anunaki, and Bel, the lord of Heaven and earth, who decreed the fate of the land, assigned to Marduk, the over-ruling son of Ea, God of righteousness, dominion over earthly man, and made him great among the Igigi, they called Babylon by his illustrious name, made it great on earth, and founded an everlasting kingdom in it, whose foundations are laid so solidly as those of heaven and earth; then Anu and Bel called by name me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, who feared God, to bring about the rule of righteousness in the land, to destroy the wicked and the evil-doers; so that the strong should not harm the weak; so that I should rule over the black-headed people like Shamash, and enlighten the land, to further the well-being of mankind.

Hammurabi, the prince, called of Bel am I, making riches and increase, enriching Nippur and Dur-ilu beyond compare, sublime patron of E-kur; who reestablished Eridu and purified the worship of E-apsu; who cconquered the four quarters of the world, made great the name of Babylon . . .

If any one steal the minor son of another, he shall be put to death.

If any one take a male or female slave of the court, or a male or female slave of a freed man, outside the city gates, he shall be put to death.

If any one receive into his house a runaway male or female slave of the court, or of a freedman, and does not bring it out at the public proclamation of the major domus, the master of the house shall be put to death.

If any one find runaway male or female slaves in the open country and bring them to their masters, the master of the slaves shall pay him two shekels of silver.

If the slave will not give the name of the master, the finder shall bring him to the palace; a further investigation must follow, and the slave shall be returned to his master.

If any one be too lazy to keep his dam in proper condition, and does not so keep it; if then the dam break and all the fields be flooded, then shall he in whose dam the break occurred be sold for money, and the money shall replace the corn which he has caused to be ruined.

If he be not able to replace the corn, then he and his possessions shall be divided among the farmers whose corn he has flooded.

If any one open his ditches to water his crop, but is careless, and the water flood the field of his neighbor, then he shall pay his neighbor corn for his loss.

If a man let in the water, and the water overflow the plantation of his neighbor, he shall pay ten gur of corn for every ten gan of land.

If a merchant entrust money to an agent (broker) for some in-vestment, and the broker suffer a loss in the place to which he goes, he shall make good the capital to the merchant.

If, while on the journey, an enemy take away from him anything that he had, the broker shall swear by God and be free of obligation.

If a merchant give an agent corn, wool, oil, or any other goods to transport, the agent shall give a receipt for the amount, and compensate the merchant therefor. Then he shall obtain a receipt form the merchant for the money that he gives the merchant.

If the agent is careless, and does not take a receipt for the money which he gave the merchant, he can not consider the unreceipted money as his own.

If the agent accept money from the merchant, but have a quarrel with the merchant (denying the receipt), then shall the merchant swear before God and witnesses that he has given this money to the agent, and the agent shall pay him three times the sum.

If the merchant cheat the agent, in that as the latter has returned to him all that had been given him, but the merchant denies the receipt of what had been returned to him, then shall this agent convict the merchant before God and the judges, and if he still deny receiving what the agent had given him shall pay six times the sum to the agent.

If a man’s wife be surprised (in flagrante delicto) with another man, both shall be tied andthrown into the water, but the husband may pardon his wife and the king his slaves.

If a man violate the wife (betrothed or child-wife) of another man, who has never known a man, and still lives in her father’s house, and sleep with her and be surprised, this man shall be put to death, but the wife is blameless.

If a man bring a charge against one’s wife, but she is not surprised with another man, she must take an oath and then may return to her house.

If the “finger is pointed” at a man’s wife about another man, but she is not caught sleeping with the other man, she shall jump into the river for her husband.

If a man is taken prisoner in war, and there is a sustenance in his house, but his wife leave house and court, and go to another house: because this wife did not keep her court, and went to another house, she shall be judicially condemned and thrown into the water.

If any one be captured in war and there is not sustenance in his house, if then his wife go to another house this woman shall be held blameless.

If a man be taken prisoner in war and there be no sustenance in his house and his wife go to another house and bear children; and if later her husband return and come to his home: then this wife shall return to her husband, but the children follow their father.

If any one leave his house, run away, and then his wife go to another house, if then he return, and wishes to take his wife back: because he fled from his home and ran away, the wife of this runaway shall not return to her husband.

If a man wish to separate from a woman who has borne him children, or from his wife who has borne him children: then he shall give that wife her dowry, and a part of the usufruct of field, garden, and property, so that she can rear her children. When she has brought up her children, a portion of all that is given to the children, equal as that of one son, shall be given to her. She may then marry the man of her heart.

If a man wishes to separate from his wife who has borne him no children, he shall give her the amount of her purchase money and the dowry which she brought from her father’s house, and let her go.

If a son strike his father, his hands shall be hewn off.

If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out. [ An eye for an eye ]

If he break another man’s bone, his bone shall be broken.

If he put out the eye of a freed man, or break the bone of a freed man, he shall pay one gold
mina.

If he put out the eye of a man’s slave, or break the bone of a man’s slave, he shall pay onehalf of its value.

If a man knock out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out. [ A tooth for a tooth ] If he knock out the teeth of a freed.

If any one strike the body of a man higher in rank than he, he shall receive sixty blows with an ox-whip in public.

LAWS of justice which Hammurabi, the wise king, established. A righteous law, and pious statute did he teach the land. Hammurabi, the protecting king am I. I have not withdrawn myself from the men, whom Bel gave to me, the rule over whom Marduk gave to me, I was not negligent, but I made them a peaceful abiding-place. I expounded all great difficulties, I made the light shine upon them. With the mighty weapons which Zamama and Ishtar entrusted to me, with the keen vision with which Ea endowed me, with the wisdom that Marduk gave me, I have uprooted the enemy above and below (in north and south), subdued the earth, brought prosperity to the land, guaranteed security to the inhabitants in their homes; a disturber was not permit-ted. The great gods have called me, I am the salvation-bearing shep-herd, whose staff is straight, the good shadow that is spread over my city; on my breast I cherish the inhabitants of the land of Sumer and Akkad; in my shelter I have let them repose in peace; in my deep wisdom have I
enclosed them. That the strong might not injure the weak, in order to protect the widows and orphans, I have in Babylon the city where Anu and Bel raise high their head, in E-Sagil, the Temple, whose foundations stand firm as heaven and earth, in order to bespeak justice in the land, to settle all disputes, and heal all injuries, set up these my precious words, written upon my memorial stone, before the image of me, as king of righteousness.

The king who ruleth among the kings of the cities am I. My words are well considered; there is no wisdom like unto mine. By the command of Shamash, the great judge of heaven and earth, let righteousness go forth in the land: by the order of Marduk, my lord, let no destruction befall my monument. In E-Sagil, which I love, let my name be ever repeated; let the oppressed, who has a case at law, come and stand before this my image as king of righteousness; let him read the inscrip-tion, and understand my precious words: the inscription will explain his case to him; he will find out what is just, and his heart will be glad, so that he will say: Hammurabi is a ruler, who is as a father to his subjects, who holds the words of Marduk in reverence, who has achieved conquest for Marduk over the north and south, who rejoices the heart of Marduk, his lord, who has bestowed benefits for ever and ever on his subjects, and has established order in the land.

Uncovering the details of human life during the Paleolithic Age poses significant challenges, as this period predates the development of writing. As a result, scholars depend on the archaeological record and studies of present-day hunting and foraging societies to draw conclusions about human lifeways during this era. In this activity, you will have the opportunity to examine some of this archaeological evidence. The images below are photographs of cave paintings from Altamira, Spain (c. 15,000 BCE), which offer valuable insights into the symbolic and cultural expressions of early humans.

As you analyze the images, consider the following questions:

• Why did the inhabitants paint these images?
• What purpose did these cave paintings serve?
• How are these images examples of reflective thinking?

Complete the Primary Source Analysis Form when finished.

Source: Ancient Art Archive https://www.ancientartarchive.org/altamira-cave-spain/

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Cave of Altamira – Spain

The Neolithic site of Çatalhöyük, first discovered in the late 1950s, is one of the most significant archaeological sites of its period due to its size, population density, and the wealth of artifacts uncovered. Initial excavations were carried out by James Mellaart in the early 1960s, and since then, an international team of archaeologists, led by Ian Hodder, has conducted new excavations and research. These efforts aim to uncover fresh insights into the lives of the population that inhabited this early agricultural settlement. Although not a primary source itself, this field report offers access to information derived from the primary sources unearthed at the site, providing a deeper understanding of Neolithic lifeways.

As you read the field report selection below, consider the following questions:

• What can we learn about the residents of Çatalhöyük by studying dimorphism?
• What does the evidence suggest about the stature and how long residents at Çatalhöyük lived?
• What did the diet of these residents consist of?
• What appears to have been the cause of mortality rates in Çatalhöyük?

Complete the Primary Source Analysis Form when finished.

Source origin: The Human Remains, Theya Molleson and Peter Andrews, Çatalhöyük , last accessed December 12, 2014,
http://www.catalhoyuk.com/archive_reports/1997/ar97_12.html

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Summary

A total of at least 64 individuals must have been buried within Room 1. This number includes four neonates in the Fill. With 13 infants under two years and 15 sub adolescent juveniles more than half the sample is of immature individuals. Old adults, of which there are 11 are well represented.

The proportion of immature to adult skeletons is very high but is compatible with an expanding population based on an extended family (or possibly a polygamous family). If each of the areas, NW Platform, 71 and 110 was used by a different nuclear family within the extended family unit this could explain the distribution. The contemporaneous use of the three areas samples sibling (brothers) families at different stages. Thus the youngest family is buried in on the north west plat-form (B38) and their children who died in infancy are buried there in phase I; surviving children that subsequently died in phase II (B36) and phase III (B35).

We can postulate that the family that used area 71 for burial (B30, 40) was already older in phase I than the B38 family and most of the children aged five or more. B31 could contain the dead children of another sibling.

In each case B38, 30, 40, 31 the last burials include an adult female or male; the death of a spouse that ended the family unit. The surviving spouses could have been buried in phase II with the east platform group.

The above describes the demographic pattern of Room 1, its generality can only be confirmed by future work. If the pattern is real there must be a decision to occupy a Building possibly at a point in the segmentation of a family towards the development of a new extended family (cf. Bedouin family structure). The death of the senior member or over-population would mark the end of the life of one extended family, which is the end of the phase of a particular Building.

Evidence for relationships

Three instances of supracondylar fossa of the humerus were noted in individuals buried at different times in area 110. This provides reasonably strong evidence that individuals buried in this area were related and that they in turn were related to 2527 an adult female, who also displays this character and was buried in the Fill before Room I was fully inhabited. Enamel defects noted in two or three cases from area 71 may also indicate related individuals as well as cases of hypodontia or dental reduction.

Spondylothesis, a failure of the last lumbar or first sacral vertebra to unite, has a genetic predisposition in its etiology, and there are two cases of this.

Stature

The people had relatively long forearms and lower legs, a general finding for neolithic samples. Thus, in calculating stature, the formulae of Trotter and Gleser (1952, 1958) given in Brothwell (1981) for negroes were found to give the most consistent results, and have been used here to evaluate heights of females and males. Owing to the fragmented nature of most of the bones few estimates have been possible. The height given in the following Table is that derived from the most reliable bone, where possible a leg bone, rather than an average of different estimates (See Trotter and Gleser 1958, Brothwell 1981).

Dimorphism

Determination of Sex and sexual dimorphism in skeletal material Sex is determined from the manifestation of secondary sex characters which are developed to different degrees in different populations. The characteristics of the pelvis, sacrum and skull are the most distinctive of females; those of the skull, pelvis and sacrum of males. In general, males are more robust than females and measures of robusticity involving two or more diameters may be valuable in determining sex. Such measures should be established for each population since size and therefore robusticity varies between populations. the robusticity of the lower canine can be particularly diagnostic in homogeneous samples, but is of limited value in mixed or
heterogeneous samples.

The use of absolute measurements to evaluate sex is to be avoided. It polarises the sexes, incorrectly attributing large women as males and small men as females. The size range given in many texts for attributing sex (Bass, Standards) will not necessarily apply to the sample under study, which may derive from a population that was taller or shorter than the reference; this being genetically and geographically determined.

Size, especially of males, may be an indicator of environmental conditions and nutritional health. Size of females may relate to envi-ronmental conditions and correlate with age of reproduction. Sexual dimorphism, the difference in size between the two sexes, can be particularly informative of the social structure of the population. In a uniform homogeneous sample there may be distinct differences between the sexes, particularly marked in late growing bones – bones of the jaw, foot, hands, clavicle, patella, and in measures of robusticity of these bones and cortical thickness of the long bones. It should be remembered that robusticity is also a measure of work load/force and may differentiate task specialization.

It is not good practice to use dimensions to infer age of juveniles. This is most reliably done by reference to dental development. The growth achievement of a child can be assessed by comparison of size with dental development. This can give information as to health and genetics. But for demographic purposes, with fragmented material, it may be necessary to resort to the use of dimensions to infer age of immature individuals where the dentition is lacking.

Posture and activity related bone morphology

It seems that a number of different postures were used habitually to rest or to carry out specific tasks: squatting on the heels, squatting or kneeling on toes, both energy efficient (Huard and Montaigne 197x), sitting cross legged, squatting both legs to one side, squatting knees together heels to buttocks, squatting weight on one foot purchase on the other.

Many of these postures may be idiosyncratic, others may be best suited to specific tasks. Pounding ochre with a pestle and mortar would be ergonomically most efficient if the mortar is held between the thighs and the pestle driven from the centre of gravity about the shoulders. Grinding of grain on a saddle quern is best undertaken from a kneeling position with the toes curled under to provide ‘push-off’ for the forward drive. Overshooting the quern and injury to the proximal articulation of the big toe was avoided by placing the quern on a plinth (see Mellaart Anatolian Studies 1962).

One, as yet unidentified, task led to injuries to the thumb. Osteoarthritic changes to the first metacarpal and trapezium of both hands is associated with morphological evidence for squatting on the toes, thighs spread apart.

Handed tasks, leading to arm asymmetry would include wall and floor plastering. These seem to have been onerous tasks especially when old plaster was re-used since it had to be thoroughly broken up (Wendy Mathews has evidence for this from her floor sections).

Diet

In comparison to other Neolithic sites wear on the teeth is very little and even old individuals do not have advanced dental abrasion. This suggests a diet of soft foods, such as those the remains of which have been found in the rooms, including lentils, peas, and acorns. Additionally tubers of water reeds, Scirpus, could have been consumed. Wheat, if eaten must have been in the form of ‘burgul’, not bread which has to be masticated and is abrasive.

There are few cases of dental caries, indicating that refined starch-es, cooked cereals, probably were not available. The few caries include several on the occlusal surface – a phenomenon related to the low abrasion rate.

Periodontal disease is uncommon and lateral abscesses were noted in only two individuals. The food seems to have been consumed in a self cleansing form – large particles and non-glutenous – fruit, nuts, lentils, meat. The generally low levels of calculus fit this impression that food was self cleansing.

A number of individuals with crowding of the anterior teeth would have developed this condition as a consequence of the generally soft food. Generally though there is a surprising lack of dental crowding given the presumed soft nature of the diet.

The diet appears to have been adequate and there are no cases of deficiency disease, although cortical thickness in some children was very thin. General undernutrition is not easy to detect except through evidence for failure to attain expected height at a given (dental) age.

Cause of death

The very high proportion of juveniles in the sample implies a high mortality rate even for young infants, presumably still being suckled.

Epidemics of infectious disease are a possibility, wiping out whole families or returning year after year. Plague, malaria, enteric dysentery are possibilities. The habitual cleanliness of the house would have controlled infection.

The large male, 1466, buried without a head, appears to have been hanged in such a way that he was decapitated, probably before death but possibly after death. It is important to note that the first cervical vertebra and the odontoid peg of the second cervical are missing, while the hyoid and one branch of the cricoid are present. The remaining cervical vertebrae are in full articulation.

Origin stories, or creation myths, likely date back to the very beginnings of human existence. These narratives address one of humanity’s most fundamental questions: how did the world and everything within it come to be? Beyond offering explanations, origin stories have also shaped people’s worldviews and influenced their relationships with their surroundings. What is particularly intriguing is the many common elements shared across origin stories, despite their emergence from diverse cultures separated by vast distances. These similarities reveal shared human concerns and creative expressions across time and space.

As you read the selections below, consider the following questions:

• How do these creation stories from different parts of the world explain the origin of nature and human existence?
• Do they share any philosophical/theological elements in explaining these origins?
• How does one explain the diversity of creation stories throughout the world?

Complete the Primary Source Analysis Form when finished.

Source origin: “The Samoan Story of Creation,” Journal of the Polynesian Society, Vol. 1 (1892), Jewish Publication Society. JPS TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures: The New JPS Translation according to the Traditional Hebrew Text. The Jewish Publication Society. León-Portilla, Miguel. Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind (The Civilization of the American Indian Series) University of Oklahoma Press.

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Samoan Story of Creation

The god Tangaloa dwelt in the Expanse; he made all things; he alone was [there]; not any sky, not any country; he only went to and fro in the Expanse; there was also no sea, and no earth; but, at the place where he stood there grew up a rock. Tangaloa-fa‘a-tutupu-nu‘u was his name; all things were about to be
made, by him, for all things were not yet made; the sky was not made nor anything else; but there grew up a Rock on which he stood.

Then Tangaloa said to the Rock, ‘Be thou split up.’ Then was brought forth Papa-taoto; after that, Papa-sosolo; then Papa-lau-a‘au; then Papa-‘ano-‘ano; then Papa-‘ele; then Papa-tu; then Papa-‘amu-‘amu and his children.

But Tangaloa stood facing the west, and spoke to the Rock. Then Tangaloa struck the Rock with his right
hand, and it split open towards the right side. Then the Earth was brought forth (that is the parent of all
the people in the world), and the Sea was brought forth. Then the Sea covered the Papa-sosolo; and Papa-nofo [that is, Papa-taoto] said to Papa-sosolo, ‘Blessed are you in [the possession of] your sea.’ Then said Papa-sosolo ‘Don’t bless me; the sea will soon reach you too.’ All the rocks in like manner called him
blessed.

Then Tangaloa turned to the right side, and the Fresh-water sprang up. Then Tangaloa spake again to the Rock, and the Sky was produced. He spake again to the Rock and Tui-te‘e-langi was brought forth; then came forth Ilu, ‘Immensity,’ and Mamao, ‘Space,’ came (that was a woman); then came Niuao.

Tangaloa spake again to the Rock; then Lua‘o, a boy, came forth. Tangaloa spake again to the Rock, and
Lua-vai, a girl, came forth. Tangaloa appointed these two to the Sā-tua-langi.

Then Tangaloa spoke again, and Aoa-lālā, a boy was born, and [next] Ngao-ngao-le-tai, a girl; then came
Man; then came the Spirit; then the Heart; then the Will; then Thought.

That is the end of Tangaloa’s creations which were produced from the Rock; they were only floating
about on the sea*; there was was no fixedness there.

Then Tangaloa made an ordinance to the rock and said:

Let the Spirit and the Heart and Will and Thought go on and join together inside the Man; and
they joined together there and man became intelligent. And this was joined to the earth (‘ele-ele’),
and it was called Fatu-ma-le-‘Ele-‘ele, as a couple,† Fatu the man, and ‘Ele-‘ele, the woman.
Then he said to Immensity and Space, ‘Come now; you two be united up above in the sky with
your boy Niuao, then they went up; there was only a void, nothing for the sight to rest upon.
Then he said to Lua-‘o and Lua-vai, ‘Come now, you two, that the region of fresh-water may be
peopled. But he ordains Aoa-lālā and Ngao-ngao-le-tai to the sea, that they two may people the sea.
And he ordains Le-Fatu and Le-‘Ele-‘ele, that they people this side; he points them to the left hand side, opposite to Tua-langi.

Then Tangaloa said to Tui-te‘e-langi, ‘Come here now; that you may prop up the sky.’ Then it was
propped up; it reached up on high. But it fell down because he was not able for it. Then Tui-te‘e-langi
went to Masoa and Teve; he brought them and used them as props; then he was able. (The masoa and the
teve were the first plants that grew, and other plants came afterwards). Then the sky remained up above,
but there was nothing for the sight to rest upon. There was only the far-receding sky, reaching to
Immensity and Space.

Hebrew Creation Story

When God began to create a heaven and earth— the earth being un-formed and void, with darkness
over the surface of the deep and a wind from God sweeping over the water— God said, “Let there be
light”; and there was light. 4God saw that the light was good, and God separated the light from the
darkness. 5God called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night. And there was evening and there
was morning, a first day.

God said, “Let there be an expanse in the midst of the water, that it may separate water from water.” God
made the expanse, and it separated the water which was below the expanse from the water which was
above the expanse. And it was so. God called the expanse Sky. And there was evening and there was
morning, a second day.

God said, “Let the water below the sky be gathered into one area, that the dry land may appear.” And it
was so. God called the dry land Earth, and the gathering of waters He called Seas. And God saw that this
was good. And God said, “Let the earth sprout vegetation: seed-bearing plants, fruit trees of every kind on
earth that bear fruit with the seed in it.” And it was so. The earth brought forth vegetation: seed-bearing
plants of every kind, and trees of every kind bearing fruit with the seed in it. And God saw that this was
good. And there was evening and there was morning, a third day.

God said, “Let there be lights in the expanse of the sky to separate day from night; they shall serve as
signs for the set times— the days and the years; and they shall serve as lights in the expanse of the sky to
shine upon the earth.” And it was so. God made the two great lights, the greater light to dominate the day
and the lesser light to dominate the night, and the stars. And God set them in the expanse of the sky to shine upon the earth, to dominate the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw
that this was good. And there was evening and there was morning, a fourth day.

God said, “Let the waters bring forth swarms of living creatures, and birds that fly above the earth across
the expanse of the sky.” God created the great sea monsters, and all the living creatures of every kind that
creep, which the waters brought forth in swarms, and all the winged birds of every kind. And God saw
that this was good. God blessed them, saying, “Be fertile and increase, fill the waters in the seas, and let
the birds increase on the earth.” And there was evening and there was morning, a fifth day.

God said, “Let the earth bring forth every kind of living creature: cattle, creeping things, and wild beasts
of every kind.” And it was so. God made wild beasts of every kind and cattle of every kind, and all kinds
of creeping things of the earth. And God saw that this was good. And God said, “Let us make man in our
image, after our likeness. They shall rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, the cattle, the whole
earth, and all the creeping things that creep on earth.” And God created man in His image, in the image of
God He created him; male and female He created them. God blessed them and God said to them, “Be
fertile and increase, fill the earth and master it; and rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, and all the
living things that creep on earth.”

God said, “See, I give you every seed-bearing plant that is upon all the earth, and every tree that has seed-bearing fruit; they shall be yours for food. And to all the animals on land, to all the birds of the sky, and to
everything that creeps on earth, in which there is the breath of life, [I give] all the green plants for food.”
And it was so. And God saw all that He had made, and found it very good. And there was evening and
there was morning, the sixth day.

The heaven and the earth were finished, and all their array. On the seventh day God finished the work that
He had been doing, and He ceased on the seventh day from all the work that He had done. And God
blessed the seventh day and declared it holy, because on it God ceased from all the work of creation that
He had done. 4Such is the story of heaven and earth when they were created.
When the LORD God made earth and heaven—when no shrub of the field was yet on earth and no
grasses of the field had yet sprouted, because the LORD God had not sent rain upon the earth and there
was no man to till the soil, but a flow would well up from the ground and water the whole surface of the
earth— the LORD God formed man from the dust of the earth. He blew into his nostrils the breath of life,
and man became a living being.

The LORD God planted a garden in Eden, in the east, and placed there the man whom He had formed.
And from the ground the LORD God caused to grow every tree that was pleasing to the sight and good
for food, with the tree of life in the middle of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and bad.
A river issues from Eden to water the garden, and it then divides and becomes four branches. The name of
the first is Pishon, the one that winds through the whole land of Havilah, where the gold is. The gold of

that land is good; bdellium is there, and lapis lazuli. The name of the second river is Gihon, the one that
winds through the whole land of Cush. The name of the third river is Tigris, the one that flows east of
Asshur. And the fourth river is the Euphrates.

The LORD God took the man and placed him in the garden of Eden, to till it and tend it. And the LORD
God commanded the man, saying, “Of every tree of the garden you are free to eat; but as for the tree of
knowledge of good and bad, you must not eat of it; for as soon as you eat of it, you shall die.”
The LORD God said, “It is not good for man to be alone; I will make a fitting helper for him.” And the
LORD God formed out of the earth all the wild beasts and all the birds of the sky, and brought them to the
man to see what he would call them; and whatever the man called each living creature, that would be its
name. And the man gave names to all the cattle and to the birds of the sky and to all the wild beasts; but
for Adam no fitting helper was found. So the LORD God cast a deep sleep upon the man; and, while he
slept, He took one of his ribs and closed up the flesh at that spot. And the LORD God fashioned the rib
that He had taken from the man into a woman; and He brought her to the man. Then the man said,
“This one at last Is bone of my bones And flesh of my flesh. This one shall be called Woman, For
from man was she taken.”

Hence a man leaves his father and mother and clings to his wife, so that they become one flesh.

Mexica Creation Story

Creation of the Suns

Here is the oral account of what is known of how the earth was founded long ago. One by one,
here are its various foundations [ages]. How it began, how the first Sun had its beginning 2513
years ago—thus it is known today, the 22 of May, 1558. This Sun, 4-Tiger, lasted 676 years.
Those who lived in this first Sun were eaten by ocelots. It was the time of the Sun 4-Tiger. And
what they used to eat was our nourishment, and they lived 676 years. And they were eaten in the
year 13. Thus they perished and all ended. At this time the Sun was destroyed. It was on the
year 1-Reed. They began to be devoured on a day [called] 4-Tiger. And so with this everything
ended and all of them perished.

This Sun is known as 4-Wind. Those who lived under this second Sun were carried away by the
wind. It was under the Sun 4-Wind that they all disappeared. They were carried away by the
wind. They became monkeys. Their homes, their trees—everything was taken away by the wind.

And this Sun itself was also swept away by the wind. And what they used to eat was our
nourishment. [The date was] 12-Serpent. They lived [under this Sun] 364 years. Thus they
perished. In a single day they were carried off by the wind. They perished on a day 4-Wind. The
year [of this Sun] was 1-Flint.

This Sun, 4-Rain, was the third. Those who lived under this third Sun, 4-Rain, also perished. It
rained fire upon them. They became turkeys. This Sun was consumed by fire. All their homes
burned. They lived under this Sun 312 years. They perished when it rained fire for a whole day.
And what they used to eat was our nourishment. [The date was] 7-Flint. The year was 1-Flint and
the day 4-Rain. They who perished were those who had become turkeys. The offspring of
turkeys are now called pípil-pípil.
This Sun is called 4-Water; for 52 years the water lasted. And those who lived under this fourth
Sun, they existed in the time of the Sun 4-Water. It lasted 676 years. Thus they perished: they
were swallowed by the waters and they became fish. The heavens collapsed upon them and in a
single day they perished. And what they used to eat was our nourishment. [The date was] 4-
Flower. The year was 1-House and the day 4-Water. They perished, all the mountains perished.
The water lasted 52 years and with this ended their years.

This Sun, called 4-Movement, this is our Sun, the one in which we now live. And here is its sign,
how the Sun fell into the fire, into the divine hearth, there at Teotihuacán. It was also the Sun of
our Lord Quetzalcóatl in Tula. The fifth Sun, its sign 4-Movement is called the Sun of
Movement because it moves and follows its path. 42. And as the elders continue to say, under
this sun there will be earthquakes and hunger, and then our end shall come.

Creation of Humans

And then Quetzalcóatl went to Mictlan. He approached Mictlantecuhtli and Mictlancíhuatl [Lord
and Lady of the region of the dead]; at once he spoke to them: “I come in search of the precious
bones in your possession. I have come for them.” And Mictlantecuhtli asked of him, “What shall
you do with them, Quetzalcóatl?” And once again Quetzalcóatl said, “The gods are anxious that
someone should inhabit the earth.” And Mictlantecuhtli replied, “Very well, sound my shell horn
and go around my circular realm four times.” But his shell horn had no holes. Quetzalcóatl
therefore called the worms, who made the holes. And then the bees went inside the horn and it
sounded. Upon hearing it sound, Mictlantecuhtli said anew, “Very well, take them.” But
Mictlantecuhtli said to those in his service, “People of Mictlan! Gods, tell Quetzalcóatl that he
must leave the bones.” Quetzalcóatl replied, “Indeed not; I shall take possession of them once

and for all.” And he said to his nahualli [double], “Go and tell them that I shall leave them.”
And the nahualli said in a loud voice, “I shall leave them.” But then he went and took the
precious bones. Next to the bones of man were the bones of woman; Quetzalcóatl took them.
And again Mictlantecuhtli said to those in his service, “Gods, is Quetzalcóatl really carrying
away the precious bones? Gods, go and make a pit.” The pit having been made, Quetzalcóatl fell
in it; he stumbled and was frightened by the quail. He fell dead and the precious bones were
scattered. The quail chewed and gnawed on them. Then Quetzalcóatl came back to life; he was
grieved and he asked of his nahualli, “What shall I do now . . . ?” And the nahualli answered,
“Since things have turned out badly, let them turn out as they may.” And he gathered them . . .
and then he took them to Tamoanchan. And as soon as he arrived, the woman called Quilaztli,
who is Cihuacóatl, took them to grind and put them in a precious vessel of clay. Upon them
Quetzalcóatl bled his member. The other gods and Quetzalcóatl himself did penance. And they
said, “People have been born, oh gods, the macehuales [those given life or “deserved” into life
through penance].” Because, for our sake, the gods did penance!

Karl Heinrich Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) viewed history as a series of class struggles, where conflicts between opposing social classes shaped new modes of production and ushered in new historical epochs. They also subscribed to the concept of historical materialism, which posits that a society’s economic base, its means of production and labor relations, determines its political and cultural superstructure. The following selection is taken from Chapter One of The Communist Manifesto, first published in 1848. This foundational text not only outlines Marx and Engels’s views on socialism but also offers a distinctive lens for interpreting the course of human history through the dynamics of class conflict.

As you read the selection below, consider the following questions:

• What do Marx and Engels suggest when they argue that the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggles?
• According to Marx and Engels, how has that history manifested itself over time? Did the rise of the bourgeoisie change this?
• What antagonism has society faced throughout history?
• How might a historian use the ideas of Marx and Engels approach writing about the past?

Complete the Primary Source Analysis Form when finished.

Source origin: The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

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The Communist Manifesto

I. Bourgeois and Proletarians

The history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggles.

Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the con-tending classes.

In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.

The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones. Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinctive feature: it has simplified the class antagonisms. Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes, directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.

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All previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interests of minorities. The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority, in the interests of the immense majority. The proletariat, the lowest stratum of our present society, cannot stir, cannot raise itself up, without the whole superincumbent strata of official society being sprung into the air.

Though not in substance, yet in form, the struggle of the proletariat with the bourgeoisie is at first a national struggle. The proletariat of each country must, of course, first of all settle matters with its own bourgeoisie. In depicting the most general phases of the development of the proletariat, we traced the more or less veiled civil war, raging within existing society, up to the point where that war breaks out into open revolution, and where the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie lays the foundation for the sway of the proletariat.

Hitherto, every form of society has been based, as we have already seen, on the antagonism of oppressing and oppressed classes. But in order to oppress a class, certain conditions must be assured to it under which it can, at least, continue its slavish existence. The serf, in the period of serfdom, raised himself to membership in the commune, just as the petty bourgeois, under the yoke of feudal absolutism, managed to develop into a bourgeois. The modern laborer, on the contrary, instead of rising with the progress of industry, sinks deeper and deeper below the conditions of existence of his own class. He becomes a pauper, and pauperism develops more rapidly than population and wealth. And here it becomes evident, that the bourgeoisie is unfit any longer to be the ruling class in society, and to impose its conditions of existence upon society as an over-riding law. It is unfit to rule because it is incompetent to assure an existence to its slave within his slavery, because it cannot help letting him sink into such a state, that it has to feed him, instead of being fed by him. Society can no longer live under this bourgeoisie, in other words, its existence is no longer compatible with society.

The essential condition for the existence, and for the sway of the bourgeois class, is the formation and augmentation of capital; the condition for capital is wage-labour. Wage-labour rests exclusively on competition between the laborers. The advance of industry, whose involuntary promoter is the bourgeoisie, replaces the isolation of the labourers, due to competition, by their revolutionary combination, due to association. The development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, is its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.