Uncovering the details of human life during the Paleolithic Age poses significant challenges, as this period predates the development of writing. As a result, scholars depend on the archaeological record and studies of present-day hunting and foraging societies to draw conclusions about human lifeways during this era. In this activity, you will have the opportunity to examine some of this archaeological evidence. The images below are photographs of cave paintings from Altamira, Spain (c. 15,000 BCE), which offer valuable insights into the symbolic and cultural expressions of early humans.
As you analyze the images, consider the following questions:
Why did the inhabitants paint these images?
What purpose did these cave paintings serve?
How are these images examples of reflective thinking?
The Neolithic site of Çatalhöyük, first discovered in the late 1950s, is one of the most significant archaeological sites of its period due to its size, population density, and the wealth of artifacts uncovered. Initial excavations were carried out by James Mellaart in the early 1960s, and since then, an international team of archaeologists, led by Ian Hodder, has conducted new excavations and research. These efforts aim to uncover fresh insights into the lives of the population that inhabited this early agricultural settlement. Although not a primary source itself, this field report offers access to information derived from the primary sources unearthed at the site, providing a deeper understanding of Neolithic lifeways.
As you read the field report selection below, consider the following questions:
What can we learn about the residents of Çatalhöyük by studying dimorphism?
What does the evidence suggest about the stature and how long residents at Çatalhöyük lived?
What did the diet of these residents consist of?
What appears to have been the cause of mortality rates in Çatalhöyük?
A total of at least 64 individuals must have been buried within Room 1. This number includes four neonates in the Fill. With 13 infants under two years and 15 sub adolescent juveniles more than half the sample is of immature individuals. Old adults, of which there are 11 are well represented.
The proportion of immature to adult skeletons is very high but is compatible with an expanding population based on an extended family (or possibly a polygamous family). If each of the areas, NW Platform, 71 and 110 was used by a different nuclear family within the extended family unit this could explain the distribution. The contemporaneous use of the three areas samples sibling (brothers) families at different stages. Thus the youngest family is buried in on the north west plat-form (B38) and their children who died in infancy are buried there in phase I; surviving children that subsequently died in phase II (B36) and phase III (B35).
We can postulate that the family that used area 71 for burial (B30, 40) was already older in phase I than the B38 family and most of the children aged five or more. B31 could contain the dead children of another sibling.
In each case B38, 30, 40, 31 the last burials include an adult female or male; the death of a spouse that ended the family unit. The surviving spouses could have been buried in phase II with the east platform group.
The above describes the demographic pattern of Room 1, its generality can only be confirmed by future work. If the pattern is real there must be a decision to occupy a Building possibly at a point in the segmentation of a family towards the development of a new extended family (cf. Bedouin family structure). The death of the senior member or over-population would mark the end of the life of one extended family, which is the end of the phase of a particular Building.
Evidence for relationships
Three instances of supracondylar fossa of the humerus were noted in individuals buried at different times in area 110. This provides reasonably strong evidence that individuals buried in this area were related and that they in turn were related to 2527 an adult female, who also displays this character and was buried in the Fill before Room I was fully inhabited. Enamel defects noted in two or three cases from area 71 may also indicate related individuals as well as cases of hypodontia or dental reduction.
Spondylothesis, a failure of the last lumbar or first sacral vertebra to unite, has a genetic predisposition in its etiology, and there are two cases of this.
Stature
The people had relatively long forearms and lower legs, a general finding for neolithic samples. Thus, in calculating stature, the formulae of Trotter and Gleser (1952, 1958) given in Brothwell (1981) for negroes were found to give the most consistent results, and have been used here to evaluate heights of females and males. Owing to the fragmented nature of most of the bones few estimates have been possible. The height given in the following Table is that derived from the most reliable bone, where possible a leg bone, rather than an average of different estimates (See Trotter and Gleser 1958, Brothwell 1981).
Dimorphism
Determination of Sex and sexual dimorphism in skeletal material Sex is determined from the manifestation of secondary sex characters which are developed to different degrees in different populations. The characteristics of the pelvis, sacrum and skull are the most distinctive of females; those of the skull, pelvis and sacrum of males. In general, males are more robust than females and measures of robusticity involving two or more diameters may be valuable in determining sex. Such measures should be established for each population since size and therefore robusticity varies between populations. the robusticity of the lower canine can be particularly diagnostic in homogeneous samples, but is of limited value in mixed or heterogeneous samples.
The use of absolute measurements to evaluate sex is to be avoided. It polarises the sexes, incorrectly attributing large women as males and small men as females. The size range given in many texts for attributing sex (Bass, Standards) will not necessarily apply to the sample under study, which may derive from a population that was taller or shorter than the reference; this being genetically and geographically determined.
Size, especially of males, may be an indicator of environmental conditions and nutritional health. Size of females may relate to envi-ronmental conditions and correlate with age of reproduction. Sexual dimorphism, the difference in size between the two sexes, can be particularly informative of the social structure of the population. In a uniform homogeneous sample there may be distinct differences between the sexes, particularly marked in late growing bones – bones of the jaw, foot, hands, clavicle, patella, and in measures of robusticity of these bones and cortical thickness of the long bones. It should be remembered that robusticity is also a measure of work load/force and may differentiate task specialization.
It is not good practice to use dimensions to infer age of juveniles. This is most reliably done by reference to dental development. The growth achievement of a child can be assessed by comparison of size with dental development. This can give information as to health and genetics. But for demographic purposes, with fragmented material, it may be necessary to resort to the use of dimensions to infer age of immature individuals where the dentition is lacking.
Posture and activity related bone morphology
It seems that a number of different postures were used habitually to rest or to carry out specific tasks: squatting on the heels, squatting or kneeling on toes, both energy efficient (Huard and Montaigne 197x), sitting cross legged, squatting both legs to one side, squatting knees together heels to buttocks, squatting weight on one foot purchase on the other.
Many of these postures may be idiosyncratic, others may be best suited to specific tasks. Pounding ochre with a pestle and mortar would be ergonomically most efficient if the mortar is held between the thighs and the pestle driven from the centre of gravity about the shoulders. Grinding of grain on a saddle quern is best undertaken from a kneeling position with the toes curled under to provide ‘push-off’ for the forward drive. Overshooting the quern and injury to the proximal articulation of the big toe was avoided by placing the quern on a plinth (see Mellaart Anatolian Studies 1962).
One, as yet unidentified, task led to injuries to the thumb. Osteoarthritic changes to the first metacarpal and trapezium of both hands is associated with morphological evidence for squatting on the toes, thighs spread apart.
Handed tasks, leading to arm asymmetry would include wall and floor plastering. These seem to have been onerous tasks especially when old plaster was re-used since it had to be thoroughly broken up (Wendy Mathews has evidence for this from her floor sections).
Diet
In comparison to other Neolithic sites wear on the teeth is very little and even old individuals do not have advanced dental abrasion. This suggests a diet of soft foods, such as those the remains of which have been found in the rooms, including lentils, peas, and acorns. Additionally tubers of water reeds, Scirpus, could have been consumed. Wheat, if eaten must have been in the form of ‘burgul’, not bread which has to be masticated and is abrasive.
There are few cases of dental caries, indicating that refined starch-es, cooked cereals, probably were not available. The few caries include several on the occlusal surface – a phenomenon related to the low abrasion rate.
Periodontal disease is uncommon and lateral abscesses were noted in only two individuals. The food seems to have been consumed in a self cleansing form – large particles and non-glutenous – fruit, nuts, lentils, meat. The generally low levels of calculus fit this impression that food was self cleansing.
A number of individuals with crowding of the anterior teeth would have developed this condition as a consequence of the generally soft food. Generally though there is a surprising lack of dental crowding given the presumed soft nature of the diet.
The diet appears to have been adequate and there are no cases of deficiency disease, although cortical thickness in some children was very thin. General undernutrition is not easy to detect except through evidence for failure to attain expected height at a given (dental) age.
Cause of death
The very high proportion of juveniles in the sample implies a high mortality rate even for young infants, presumably still being suckled.
Epidemics of infectious disease are a possibility, wiping out whole families or returning year after year. Plague, malaria, enteric dysentery are possibilities. The habitual cleanliness of the house would have controlled infection.
The large male, 1466, buried without a head, appears to have been hanged in such a way that he was decapitated, probably before death but possibly after death. It is important to note that the first cervical vertebra and the odontoid peg of the second cervical are missing, while the hyoid and one branch of the cricoid are present. The remaining cervical vertebrae are in full articulation.
Origin stories, or creation myths, likely date back to the very beginnings of human existence. These narratives address one of humanity’s most fundamental questions: how did the world and everything within it come to be? Beyond offering explanations, origin stories have also shaped people’s worldviews and influenced their relationships with their surroundings. What is particularly intriguing is the many common elements shared across origin stories, despite their emergence from diverse cultures separated by vast distances. These similarities reveal shared human concerns and creative expressions across time and space.
As you read the selections below, consider the following questions:
How do these creation stories from different parts of the world explain the origin of nature and human existence?
Do they share any philosophical/theological elements in explaining these origins?
How does one explain the diversity of creation stories throughout the world?
Source origin: “The Samoan Story of Creation,” Journal of the Polynesian Society, Vol. 1 (1892), Jewish Publication Society. JPS TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures: The New JPS Translation according to the Traditional Hebrew Text. The Jewish Publication Society. León-Portilla, Miguel. Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind (The Civilization of the American Indian Series) University of Oklahoma Press.
Samoan Story of Creation
The god Tangaloa dwelt in the Expanse; he made all things; he alone was [there]; not any sky, not any country; he only went to and fro in the Expanse; there was also no sea, and no earth; but, at the place where he stood there grew up a rock. Tangaloa-fa‘a-tutupu-nu‘u was his name; all things were about to be made, by him, for all things were not yet made; the sky was not made nor anything else; but there grew up a Rock on which he stood.
Then Tangaloa said to the Rock, ‘Be thou split up.’ Then was brought forth Papa-taoto; after that, Papa-sosolo; then Papa-lau-a‘au; then Papa-‘ano-‘ano; then Papa-‘ele; then Papa-tu; then Papa-‘amu-‘amu and his children.
But Tangaloa stood facing the west, and spoke to the Rock. Then Tangaloa struck the Rock with his right hand, and it split open towards the right side. Then the Earth was brought forth (that is the parent of all the people in the world), and the Sea was brought forth. Then the Sea covered the Papa-sosolo; and Papa-nofo [that is, Papa-taoto] said to Papa-sosolo, ‘Blessed are you in [the possession of] your sea.’ Then said Papa-sosolo ‘Don’t bless me; the sea will soon reach you too.’ All the rocks in like manner called him blessed.
Then Tangaloa turned to the right side, and the Fresh-water sprang up. Then Tangaloa spake again to the Rock, and the Sky was produced. He spake again to the Rock and Tui-te‘e-langi was brought forth; then came forth Ilu, ‘Immensity,’ and Mamao, ‘Space,’ came (that was a woman); then came Niuao.
Tangaloa spake again to the Rock; then Lua‘o, a boy, came forth. Tangaloa spake again to the Rock, and Lua-vai, a girl, came forth. Tangaloa appointed these two to the Sā-tua-langi.
Then Tangaloa spoke again, and Aoa-lālā, a boy was born, and [next] Ngao-ngao-le-tai, a girl; then came Man; then came the Spirit; then the Heart; then the Will; then Thought.
That is the end of Tangaloa’s creations which were produced from the Rock; they were only floating about on the sea*; there was was no fixedness there.
Then Tangaloa made an ordinance to the rock and said:
Let the Spirit and the Heart and Will and Thought go on and join together inside the Man; and they joined together there and man became intelligent. And this was joined to the earth (‘ele-ele’), and it was called Fatu-ma-le-‘Ele-‘ele, as a couple,† Fatu the man, and ‘Ele-‘ele, the woman. Then he said to Immensity and Space, ‘Come now; you two be united up above in the sky with your boy Niuao, then they went up; there was only a void, nothing for the sight to rest upon. Then he said to Lua-‘o and Lua-vai, ‘Come now, you two, that the region of fresh-water may be peopled. But he ordains Aoa-lālā and Ngao-ngao-le-tai to the sea, that they two may people the sea. And he ordains Le-Fatu and Le-‘Ele-‘ele, that they people this side; he points them to the left hand side, opposite to Tua-langi.
Then Tangaloa said to Tui-te‘e-langi, ‘Come here now; that you may prop up the sky.’ Then it was propped up; it reached up on high. But it fell down because he was not able for it. Then Tui-te‘e-langi went to Masoa and Teve; he brought them and used them as props; then he was able. (The masoa and the teve were the first plants that grew, and other plants came afterwards). Then the sky remained up above, but there was nothing for the sight to rest upon. There was only the far-receding sky, reaching to Immensity and Space.
Hebrew Creation Story
When God began to create a heaven and earth— the earth being un-formed and void, with darkness over the surface of the deep and a wind from God sweeping over the water— God said, “Let there be light”; and there was light. 4God saw that the light was good, and God separated the light from the darkness. 5God called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night. And there was evening and there was morning, a first day.
God said, “Let there be an expanse in the midst of the water, that it may separate water from water.” God made the expanse, and it separated the water which was below the expanse from the water which was above the expanse. And it was so. God called the expanse Sky. And there was evening and there was morning, a second day.
God said, “Let the water below the sky be gathered into one area, that the dry land may appear.” And it was so. God called the dry land Earth, and the gathering of waters He called Seas. And God saw that this was good. And God said, “Let the earth sprout vegetation: seed-bearing plants, fruit trees of every kind on earth that bear fruit with the seed in it.” And it was so. The earth brought forth vegetation: seed-bearing plants of every kind, and trees of every kind bearing fruit with the seed in it. And God saw that this was good. And there was evening and there was morning, a third day.
God said, “Let there be lights in the expanse of the sky to separate day from night; they shall serve as signs for the set times— the days and the years; and they shall serve as lights in the expanse of the sky to shine upon the earth.” And it was so. God made the two great lights, the greater light to dominate the day and the lesser light to dominate the night, and the stars. And God set them in the expanse of the sky to shine upon the earth, to dominate the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw that this was good. And there was evening and there was morning, a fourth day.
God said, “Let the waters bring forth swarms of living creatures, and birds that fly above the earth across the expanse of the sky.” God created the great sea monsters, and all the living creatures of every kind that creep, which the waters brought forth in swarms, and all the winged birds of every kind. And God saw that this was good. God blessed them, saying, “Be fertile and increase, fill the waters in the seas, and let the birds increase on the earth.” And there was evening and there was morning, a fifth day.
God said, “Let the earth bring forth every kind of living creature: cattle, creeping things, and wild beasts of every kind.” And it was so. God made wild beasts of every kind and cattle of every kind, and all kinds of creeping things of the earth. And God saw that this was good. And God said, “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness. They shall rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, the cattle, the whole earth, and all the creeping things that creep on earth.” And God created man in His image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them. God blessed them and God said to them, “Be fertile and increase, fill the earth and master it; and rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, and all the living things that creep on earth.”
God said, “See, I give you every seed-bearing plant that is upon all the earth, and every tree that has seed-bearing fruit; they shall be yours for food. And to all the animals on land, to all the birds of the sky, and to everything that creeps on earth, in which there is the breath of life, [I give] all the green plants for food.” And it was so. And God saw all that He had made, and found it very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day.
The heaven and the earth were finished, and all their array. On the seventh day God finished the work that He had been doing, and He ceased on the seventh day from all the work that He had done. And God blessed the seventh day and declared it holy, because on it God ceased from all the work of creation that He had done. 4Such is the story of heaven and earth when they were created. When the LORD God made earth and heaven—when no shrub of the field was yet on earth and no grasses of the field had yet sprouted, because the LORD God had not sent rain upon the earth and there was no man to till the soil, but a flow would well up from the ground and water the whole surface of the earth— the LORD God formed man from the dust of the earth. He blew into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living being.
The LORD God planted a garden in Eden, in the east, and placed there the man whom He had formed. And from the ground the LORD God caused to grow every tree that was pleasing to the sight and good for food, with the tree of life in the middle of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and bad. A river issues from Eden to water the garden, and it then divides and becomes four branches. The name of the first is Pishon, the one that winds through the whole land of Havilah, where the gold is. The gold of
that land is good; bdellium is there, and lapis lazuli. The name of the second river is Gihon, the one that winds through the whole land of Cush. The name of the third river is Tigris, the one that flows east of Asshur. And the fourth river is the Euphrates.
The LORD God took the man and placed him in the garden of Eden, to till it and tend it. And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, “Of every tree of the garden you are free to eat; but as for the tree of knowledge of good and bad, you must not eat of it; for as soon as you eat of it, you shall die.” The LORD God said, “It is not good for man to be alone; I will make a fitting helper for him.” And the LORD God formed out of the earth all the wild beasts and all the birds of the sky, and brought them to the man to see what he would call them; and whatever the man called each living creature, that would be its name. And the man gave names to all the cattle and to the birds of the sky and to all the wild beasts; but for Adam no fitting helper was found. So the LORD God cast a deep sleep upon the man; and, while he slept, He took one of his ribs and closed up the flesh at that spot. And the LORD God fashioned the rib that He had taken from the man into a woman; and He brought her to the man. Then the man said, “This one at last Is bone of my bones And flesh of my flesh. This one shall be called Woman, For from man was she taken.”
Hence a man leaves his father and mother and clings to his wife, so that they become one flesh.
Mexica Creation Story
Creation of the Suns
Here is the oral account of what is known of how the earth was founded long ago. One by one, here are its various foundations [ages]. How it began, how the first Sun had its beginning 2513 years ago—thus it is known today, the 22 of May, 1558. This Sun, 4-Tiger, lasted 676 years. Those who lived in this first Sun were eaten by ocelots. It was the time of the Sun 4-Tiger. And what they used to eat was our nourishment, and they lived 676 years. And they were eaten in the year 13. Thus they perished and all ended. At this time the Sun was destroyed. It was on the year 1-Reed. They began to be devoured on a day [called] 4-Tiger. And so with this everything ended and all of them perished.
This Sun is known as 4-Wind. Those who lived under this second Sun were carried away by the wind. It was under the Sun 4-Wind that they all disappeared. They were carried away by the wind. They became monkeys. Their homes, their trees—everything was taken away by the wind.
And this Sun itself was also swept away by the wind. And what they used to eat was our nourishment. [The date was] 12-Serpent. They lived [under this Sun] 364 years. Thus they perished. In a single day they were carried off by the wind. They perished on a day 4-Wind. The year [of this Sun] was 1-Flint.
This Sun, 4-Rain, was the third. Those who lived under this third Sun, 4-Rain, also perished. It rained fire upon them. They became turkeys. This Sun was consumed by fire. All their homes burned. They lived under this Sun 312 years. They perished when it rained fire for a whole day. And what they used to eat was our nourishment. [The date was] 7-Flint. The year was 1-Flint and the day 4-Rain. They who perished were those who had become turkeys. The offspring of turkeys are now called pípil-pípil. This Sun is called 4-Water; for 52 years the water lasted. And those who lived under this fourth Sun, they existed in the time of the Sun 4-Water. It lasted 676 years. Thus they perished: they were swallowed by the waters and they became fish. The heavens collapsed upon them and in a single day they perished. And what they used to eat was our nourishment. [The date was] 4- Flower. The year was 1-House and the day 4-Water. They perished, all the mountains perished. The water lasted 52 years and with this ended their years.
This Sun, called 4-Movement, this is our Sun, the one in which we now live. And here is its sign, how the Sun fell into the fire, into the divine hearth, there at Teotihuacán. It was also the Sun of our Lord Quetzalcóatl in Tula. The fifth Sun, its sign 4-Movement is called the Sun of Movement because it moves and follows its path. 42. And as the elders continue to say, under this sun there will be earthquakes and hunger, and then our end shall come.
Creation of Humans
And then Quetzalcóatl went to Mictlan. He approached Mictlantecuhtli and Mictlancíhuatl [Lord and Lady of the region of the dead]; at once he spoke to them: “I come in search of the precious bones in your possession. I have come for them.” And Mictlantecuhtli asked of him, “What shall you do with them, Quetzalcóatl?” And once again Quetzalcóatl said, “The gods are anxious that someone should inhabit the earth.” And Mictlantecuhtli replied, “Very well, sound my shell horn and go around my circular realm four times.” But his shell horn had no holes. Quetzalcóatl therefore called the worms, who made the holes. And then the bees went inside the horn and it sounded. Upon hearing it sound, Mictlantecuhtli said anew, “Very well, take them.” But Mictlantecuhtli said to those in his service, “People of Mictlan! Gods, tell Quetzalcóatl that he must leave the bones.” Quetzalcóatl replied, “Indeed not; I shall take possession of them once
and for all.” And he said to his nahualli [double], “Go and tell them that I shall leave them.” And the nahualli said in a loud voice, “I shall leave them.” But then he went and took the precious bones. Next to the bones of man were the bones of woman; Quetzalcóatl took them. And again Mictlantecuhtli said to those in his service, “Gods, is Quetzalcóatl really carrying away the precious bones? Gods, go and make a pit.” The pit having been made, Quetzalcóatl fell in it; he stumbled and was frightened by the quail. He fell dead and the precious bones were scattered. The quail chewed and gnawed on them. Then Quetzalcóatl came back to life; he was grieved and he asked of his nahualli, “What shall I do now . . . ?” And the nahualli answered, “Since things have turned out badly, let them turn out as they may.” And he gathered them . . . and then he took them to Tamoanchan. And as soon as he arrived, the woman called Quilaztli, who is Cihuacóatl, took them to grind and put them in a precious vessel of clay. Upon them Quetzalcóatl bled his member. The other gods and Quetzalcóatl himself did penance. And they said, “People have been born, oh gods, the macehuales [those given life or “deserved” into life through penance].” Because, for our sake, the gods did penance!
Karl Heinrich Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) viewed history as a series of class struggles, where conflicts between opposing social classes shaped new modes of production and ushered in new historical epochs. They also subscribed to the concept of historical materialism, which posits that a society’s economic base, its means of production and labor relations, determines its political and cultural superstructure. The following selection is taken from Chapter One of The Communist Manifesto, first published in 1848. This foundational text not only outlines Marx and Engels’s views on socialism but also offers a distinctive lens for interpreting the course of human history through the dynamics of class conflict.
As you read the selection below, consider the following questions:
What do Marx and Engels suggest when they argue that the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggles?
According to Marx and Engels, how has that history manifested itself over time? Did the rise of the bourgeoisie change this?
What antagonism has society faced throughout history?
How might a historian use the ideas of Marx and Engels approach writing about the past?
Source origin: The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
The Communist Manifesto
I. Bourgeois and Proletarians
The history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggles.
Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the con-tending classes.
In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.
The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones. Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinctive feature: it has simplified the class antagonisms. Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes, directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.
_______________
All previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interests of minorities. The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority, in the interests of the immense majority. The proletariat, the lowest stratum of our present society, cannot stir, cannot raise itself up, without the whole superincumbent strata of official society being sprung into the air.
Though not in substance, yet in form, the struggle of the proletariat with the bourgeoisie is at first a national struggle. The proletariat of each country must, of course, first of all settle matters with its own bourgeoisie. In depicting the most general phases of the development of the proletariat, we traced the more or less veiled civil war, raging within existing society, up to the point where that war breaks out into open revolution, and where the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie lays the foundation for the sway of the proletariat.
Hitherto, every form of society has been based, as we have already seen, on the antagonism of oppressing and oppressed classes. But in order to oppress a class, certain conditions must be assured to it under which it can, at least, continue its slavish existence. The serf, in the period of serfdom, raised himself to membership in the commune, just as the petty bourgeois, under the yoke of feudal absolutism, managed to develop into a bourgeois. The modern laborer, on the contrary, instead of rising with the progress of industry, sinks deeper and deeper below the conditions of existence of his own class. He becomes a pauper, and pauperism develops more rapidly than population and wealth. And here it becomes evident, that the bourgeoisie is unfit any longer to be the ruling class in society, and to impose its conditions of existence upon society as an over-riding law. It is unfit to rule because it is incompetent to assure an existence to its slave within his slavery, because it cannot help letting him sink into such a state, that it has to feed him, instead of being fed by him. Society can no longer live under this bourgeoisie, in other words, its existence is no longer compatible with society.
The essential condition for the existence, and for the sway of the bourgeois class, is the formation and augmentation of capital; the condition for capital is wage-labour. Wage-labour rests exclusively on competition between the laborers. The advance of industry, whose involuntary promoter is the bourgeoisie, replaces the isolation of the labourers, due to competition, by their revolutionary combination, due to association. The development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, is its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.
World History Portal 